- Mainland China has 13 nuclear power reactors in operation, more than 25 under construction, and more about to start construction soon.
- Additional reactors are planned, including some of the world's most advanced, to give more than a ten-fold increase in nuclear capacity to at least 80 GWe by 2020, 200 GWe by 2030, and 400 GWe by 2050.
- China is rapidly becoming self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the fuel cycle.
Most of mainland China's electricity is produced from fossil fuels (80% from coal, 2% from oil, 1% from gas in 2006) and hydropower (15%). Two large hydro projects are recent additions: Three Gorges of 18.2 GWe and Yellow River of 15.8 GWe. Rapid growth in demand has given rise to power shortages, and the reliance on fossil fuels has led to much air pollution. The economic loss due to pollution is put by the World Bank at almost 6% of GDP.1
Domestic electricity production in 2009 was 3643 billion kWh, 6.0% higher than the 3450 billion kWh in 2008, which was 5.8% more than in 2007 (3260 billion kWh) and it is expected to rise to 3810 billion kWh in 2010a. Installed generating capacity had grown by the end of 2010 to 962 GWe, up 10.1% on the previous year's 874 GWe, which was 10.2% above the 2008 figure of 793 GWe2. At the end of 2010, fossil fuelled capacity (mostly coal) reached 707 GWe, hydro capacity was 213 GWe (up 16.6 GWe in the year), nuclear capacity was 10.8 GWe and wind capacity reached 31 GWe. Meanwhile, investment in electricity dropped 8.5% to CNY 705 billion ($107 billion) for the year. Capacity growth is expected to slow, reaching about 1600 GWe in 2020.
These capacity increase figures are all the more remarkable considering the forced retirement of small inefficient coal-fired plants: 26 GWe of these was closed in 2009 and 11 GWe in 2010, making 71 GWe closed since 2006, cutting annual coal consumption by about 82 million tonnes and annual carbon dioxide emissions by some 165 million tonnes. China is well advanced in developing and deploying supercritical and ultra-supercritical coal plants, as well as moving quickly to design and deploy technologies for integrated (coal) gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants.
The grid system run by the State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC) and China Southern Power Grid Co (CSG) is sophisticated and rapidly growing, utilising ultra high voltage (1000 kV AC and 800 kV DC) transmission. By 2020, the capacity of the UHV network is expected to be some 300 GW, which will function as the backbone of the whole system, having 400 GWe of clean energy sources connected, of which hydropower will account for 78 GW, and wind power from the north a further significant portion (wind capacity by 2020 is planned to be 100 GWe). Also by 2020, operational transmission losses are expected to be 5.7%, down from 6.6% in 2010. At the end of 2009, China had budgeted to spend $600 billion upgrading its grid.
Among the main listed generators, Huaneng Power produced 203.5 billion kWh from its domestic plants in 2009, 10.2% up on 2008. Datang Power produced 141.9 billion kWh, 12% up on 2008. Huadian Power produced 107.5 billion kWh, 6.75% above 2008. CPI Development produced 43.9 billion kWh, 2.0% above 2008 level.
While coal is the main energy source, most reserves are in the north or northwest and present an enormous logistical problem – nearly half the country's rail capacity is used in transporting coal. Because of the heavy reliance on old coal-fired plant, electricity generation accounts for much of the country's air pollution, which is a strong reason to increase nuclear share. China recently overtook the USA as the world's largest contributor to carbon dioxide emissions. The US Energy Information Administration predicts that China's share in global coal-related emissions will grow by 2.7% per year, from 4.9 billion tonnes in 2006 to 9.3 billion tonnes in 2030, some 52% of the projected world total. Total carbon dioxide emissions in China are projected to grow by 2.8% per year from 6.2 billion tonnes in 2006 to 11.7 billion tonnes in 2030 (or 28% of world total). In comparison, total US carbon dioxide emissions are projected to grow by 0.3% per year, from 5.9 billion tonnes in 2006 to 7.7 billion tonnes in 2030.3
Electricity generation is only one part of China's rapid development; roads, air transport and a 40,000 km high-speed rail system by 2015 are others.
Nuclear power
Nuclear power has an important role, especially in the coastal areas remote from the coalfields and where the economy is developing rapidly. Generally, nuclear plants can be built close to centres of demand, whereas suitable wind and hydro sites are remote from demand. Moves to build nuclear power commenced in 1970 and about 2005 the industry moved into a rapid development phase. Technology has been drawn from France, Canada and Russia, with local development based largely on the French element. The latest technology acquisition has been from the USA (via Westinghouse, owned by Japan's Toshiba) and France. The Westinghouse AP1000 is the main basis of technology development in the immediate future.
By around 2040, PWRs are expected to level off at 200 GWe and fast reactors progressively increase from 2020 to at least 200 GWe by 2050 and 1400 GWe by 2100.
Prior to 2008, the government had planned to increase nuclear generating capacity to 40 GWe by 2020 (out of a total 1000 GWe planned), with a further 18 GWe nuclear being under construction then. However, government targets for nuclear power have been increasing. As of June 2010, official installed nuclear capacity projections were 70-80 GWe by 2020, 200 GWe by 2030 and 400-500 GWe by 2050. China Daily in January 2011 quoted a senior official projecting 86 GWe target in 2020.
In September 2010, the China Daily reported that China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) alone plans to invest CNY 800 billion ($120 billion) into nuclear energy projects by 2020. Total investment in nuclear power plants, in which CNNC will hold controlling stakes, will reach CNY 500 billion ($75 billion) by 2015, resulting in 40 GWe on line, according to CNNC. In order to fund the company's expansion target, CNNC plans to list its subsidiary, CNNC Nuclear Power Co Ltd in 2011, to attract strategic investors.
Hong Kong gets much of its power from mainland China, in particular about 70% of the output from Daya Bay's 1888 MWe net nuclear capacity is sent there. The Hong Kong government plans to close down its coal-fired plants, and by 2020 to get 50% of its power from mainland nuclear, 40% from gas locally and 3% from renewables. Hong Kong utility China Light & Power has equity in CGNPC's Daya Bay and Yangjiang power plants, and may take equity in a further CGNPC nuclear plant.
In January 2011 a report from the State Council Research Office (SCRO), which makes independent policy recommendations to the State Council on strategic matters, was published. While approving the enormous progress made on many fronts, it cautioned concerning provincial and corporate enthusiasm for new nuclear power plants and said that the 2020 target should be restricted to 70 GWe of new plant actually operating so as to avoid placing undue demand on quality control issues in the supply chain. Another 30 GWe could be under construction. It emphasised that the priority needed to be resolutely on Generation-III technology, notably the AP1000 and derivatives. However, ambitious targets to deploy AP1000s with reduced foreign input had proved difficult, and as a result, more of the Generation-II CPR-1000 units are under construction or on order. Only China is building Gen-II units today in such large numbers, with 57 (53.14 GWe) on the books4.
SCRO said that reactors built today should operate for 50 or 60 years, meaning a large fleet of Gen-II units will still be in operation into the 2070s, when even Gen-III reactors would have given way to Generation-IV and perhaps even to commercial nuclear fusion. The country should be 'careful' concerning 'the volume of second generation units under construction... the scale should not be too large' to avoid any perception of being below international standards of safety in future, when most of the world's Gen-II reactors are retired. The SCRO noted the 100-fold increase in probabilistic safety brought by Gen-III, and that future generations would continue the trend.
Another factor potentially affecting safety is the nuclear power workforce. While staff can be technically trained in four to eight years, 'safety culture takes longer' at the operational level. This issue is magnified in the regulatory regime, where salaries are lower than in industry, and workforce numbers remain relatively low. SCRO said that most countries employ 30-40 regulatory staff per reactor in their fleet, but the National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA) has only 1000 staff - a figure that must more than quadruple by 2020. The SCRO recommended that 'The NNSA should be an entity directly under the State Council Bureau, making it an independent regulatory body with authority.' It is currently under the China Atomic Energy Authority which plans new capacity and approves feasibility studies for new plants, although it is understood to report to the State Council directly.
The report said that 32 further reactors 34.86 GWe had been approved by the state at end 2010, with 25 (27.73 GWe) then under construction.
The SCRO calculated that nuclear development would require new investment of some CNY 1 trillion ($151 billion) by 2020, not counting those units being built now. These projects rely mainly on debt, funds are tight, and 'investment risks cannot be discounted'. This cost figure could rise if supply chain issues impact schedules, with repercussions for companies borrowing to build and for the economics of the Chinese nuclear program overall. A major recommendation was to sort out bottlenecks in the supply chain for AP1000 reactors.
Nuclear power reactors in mainland China
Reactor technology
China has set the following points as key elements of its nuclear energy policy:
- PWRs will be the mainstream but not sole reactor type.
- Nuclear fuel assemblies are fabricated and supplied indigenously.
- Domestic manufacturing of plant and equipment will be maximised, with self-reliance in design and project management.
- International cooperation is nevertheless encouraged.
The technology base for future reactors remains officially undefined, though two designs are currently predominant in construction plans: CPR-1000 and AP1000. Beyond them, high-temperature gas-cooled reactors and fast reactors appear to be the main priorities.
A major struggle between the established China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) pushing for indigenous technology and the small but well-connected State Nuclear Power Technology Corp (SNPTC) favouring imported technology was won by SNPTC about 2004. In particular, SNPTC proposes use of indigenized 1000+ MWe plants with advanced third-generation technology, arising from Westinghouse AP1000 designs at Sanmen and Haiyang (see section below on Embarking upon Generation III plants). Westinghouse has agreed to transfer technology to SNPTC over the first four AP1000 units so that SNPTC can build the following ones on its own.
In February 2006, the State Council announced that the large advanced PWR was one of two high priority projects for the next 15 years, depending on "Sino-foreign cooperation, in order to master international advanced technology on nuclear power and develop a Chinese third-generation large PWR".5 In September 2006, the head of the China Atomic Energy Authority said that he expected large numbers of third-generation PWR reactors derived from foreign technology to be built from about 2016, after experience is gained with the initial AP1000 units.
AP1000
The Westinghouse AP1000 is the main basis of China's move to Generation III technology, and involves a major technology transfer agreement. It is a 1250 MWe gross reactor with two coolant loops. The first four AP1000 reactors are being built at Sanmen and Haiyang, for CNNC and CPI respectively. At least eight more at four sites are firmly planned after them, and about 30 more are proposed to follow.
The reactors are built from modules fabricated adjacent to each site. The timeline is 50 months from first concrete to fuel loading, then six months to grid connection for the first four units, with this expected to reduce significantly for the following units. The cost of the first four is expected to be less than $2000/kW, with this reducing to $1600 for further units. In October 2009, SNPTC and CNNC signed an agreement to co-develop and refine the AP1000 design. (See also section below on Embarking upon Generation III plants).
EPR
Two Areva EPR reactors are being built at Taishan, and at least two more are planned (see section below on Embarking upon Generation III plants). Areva says the reactors are 4590 MWt, with net power 1660 MWe.
In October 2008, Areva and CGNPC announced establishment of an engineering joint venture as a technology transfer vehicle for development EPR and other PWR plants in China and later abroad. The JV will be held 55% by CGNPC and other Chinese interests, and 45% by Areva. It will engineer and procure equipment for both the EPR and the CPR-1000.
CAP1400
Westinghouse announced in 2008 that it was working with SNPTC and Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research & Design Institute (SNERDI) to develop jointly a passively safe 1400 MWe design from the AP1000, for large-scale deployment. This development with SNERDI opens the possibility of China itself exporting the new larger units with Westinghouse's cooperation.
In December 2009, the State Nuclear Demonstration Company – a 55-45% joint venture company by SNPTC and China Huaneng Group – was set up to build and operate an initial unit of the larger design, the CAP1400, at Huaneng's Shidaowan site. The new company signed a set of agreements with SNERDI and the State Nuclear Power Engineering Company (SNPEC) in November 2010 to proceed with the project. Construction is scheduled to start in April 2013, and SNPTC hoped to have it operating in December 2017. Westinghouse is to provide technical consulting services to SNPTC for the design. It may be followed by a larger, 3-loop CAP2100 design if the passive cooling system can be scaled to that level. Agreements with Westinghouse stipulate that SNPTC will own the intellectual property rights for any derivatives over 1350 MWe. SNPEC is doing the engineering under a team from SNERDI, the Shandong Electric Power Engineering Consulting Institute (SEPECI), and the State Nuclear Power Equipment Manufacturing Company (SNPEMC), which will make the components.
CNP-1000 (also CNP-600, CNP-300)
CNNC had been working with Westinghouse and Framatome (now Areva) at SNERDI since the early 1990s to develop a Chinese standard three-loop PWR design, the CNP-1000. This is developed from the single-loop Qinshan CNP-300 unit (scaled up to the two-loop CNP-600 units, also at Qinshan), with high (60 GWd/t) burn-up, 18-month refueling cycle and 20 more fuel assemblies than the French-origin unitsb. In 1997, the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC) at Chengdu became involved in the reactor design and, early in 2007, SNERDI was reassigned to concentrate on the AP1000 program. CNNC has been keen to create its own brand of advanced second-generation reactor with full intellectual property rights, and wanted to build two initial CNP-1000 plants at Fangjiashan, adjacent to Qinshan near Shanghai, under the 11th Economic Plan, though the design probably would not have been ready. In early 2007, the CNP-1000 development was put on hold indefinitely, though this aborted export plans for two CNP-1000 units to Pakistan.
Further CNP-600 units are being built at Qinshan and Changjiang, Hainan. CNNC says they are free of French intellectual property rights. CNNC is also developing the design to the ACP600 which it expects to be able to built on Hainan or in the northwest Gansu province about 2013c.
A new 300 MWe CNP-300 PWR unit is being built at Chasma in Pakistan by the China Zhongyuan Engineering Corporation. It is a twin to that already commissioned in 2000, and similar to Qinshan 1 – China's first indigenously-designed (by SNERDI) nuclear power plant.
CNNC is seeking to sell the CNP-300 to Belarus and in Africa.
CPR-1000
The CPR-1000 is a significantly upgraded version of the 900 MWe-class French three-loop technology imported for the Daya Bay nuclear power plant in the 1980s. Known as the 'improved Chinese PWR' and designated Generation II+, it features digital instrumentation and control and a design life of 60 years. Its 157 fuel assemblies have core melt frequency of 1x10-5 and a release probability an order of magnitude lower than this.
Standard construction time is 52 months, and the unit cost is under CNY 10,000 (US$ 1500) per kilowatt. With a capacity of 1080 MWe gross (1037 MWe net), Ling Ao Phase II is the first plant to be designated as the CPR-1000 design. The CPR-1000 is being widely and quickly deployed for domestic use.
China Guangdong Nuclear Power Corporation (CGNPC) led the development of the CPR-1000 and has established a nearly complete domestic supply chain. However, Areva retains intellectual property rights, which constrains overseas sales since the Chinese would need agreement from Areva on a case-by-case basis.
CGNPC refers to later units as CPR-1000+, incorporating design improvements which bring it close to Generation III standard. Of more significance is its evolution to the ACPR-1000 with full Chinese intellectual property rights and which CGNPC expects to make available for local build and overseas markets from 2013.
VVER
Russia's Atomstroyexport was general contractor and equipment provider for the Tianwan AES-91 power plants using the V-428 version of the well-proven VVER-1000 reactor of 1060 MWe capacity. The reactors incorporate Finnish safety features and Siemens-Areva instrumentation and control systems. Russia's Energoatom is responsible for maintenance from 2009. Tianwan units 3 & 4 will use the same version of the VVER-1000 reactor, and if CNNC continues with Russian technology for units 5 & 6, they will probably use the VVER-1200.
Candu
In September 2005, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd (AECL) signed a technology development agreement with CNNC which opened the possibility of it supplying further Candu-6 reactors. AECL built the two-unit Qinshan Phase III plant on schedule and under budget and estimates that it could be replicated for 25% lower cost. Any replication would be on the basis of involving local engineering teams, not on a turnkey basis, but the technology is now well understood and the decades-old Candu-6 design would likely pose fewer problems for technology transfer than state of the art third-generation designs from Westinghouse and Areva NP. (The later Korean Candu-6 plants at Wolsong had 75% local content.) However, the agreement with CNNC – more specifically with SNERDI – looked further forward to collaboration on AECL's new ACR design later. SNERDI is now focused on AP1000 engineering and reassigned to SNPTC, so early in 2008 work on Candu fuel technologies passed to another CNNC entity: the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC).
HTR
In February 2006, the State Council announced that the small high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTR) was the second of two high priority projects for the next 15 years. The small HTR-PM units with pebble bed fuel were to be 200 MWe reactors, similar to that being developed in South Africa, but plans have evolved to make them twin 105 MWe reactors so that they can retain the same core configuration as the prototype HTR-10. The twin units will drive a single steam turbine. China Huaneng Group is the lead organization in the consortium to build the demonstration Shidaowan HTR-PM with China Nuclear Engineering & Construction Group (CNEC) and Tsinghua University's INET, which is the R&D leader. Chinergy Co., a joint venture of Tsinghua and CNEC, is the main contractor for the nuclear island. Thermal efficiency of 40%, localisation 75% and 50-month construction for the first unit is envisaged. The initial HTR-PM will pave the way for 18 (3x6) further 210 MWe units at the same site – total 3800 MWe (see Shidaowan project below, and Research and development section in page on China's Nuclear Fuel Cycle).
Fast neutron reactor
Longer-term, fast neutron reactors (FNRs) are seen as the main technology, and CNNC expects the FNR to become predominant by mid-century. A 65 MWt fast neutron reactor – the Chinese Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) – near Beijing achieved criticality in July 2010.6 Based on this, a 600 MWe pre-conceptual design was developed. The current plan is to develop an indigenous 1000 MWe design to begin construction in 2017, and commissioning 2022. This is known as the Chinese Demonstration Fast Reactor (CDFR) project 1.
In addition to CDFR project 1, in October 2009, an agreement with Russia confirmed earlier indications that China would opt for the BN-800 technology as CDFR project 2. The 880 MWe gross BN-800 reactor being built by OKBM Afrikantov at Beloyarsk in Siberia is the reference design and the first two in China are planned to start construction in 2013 at Sanming, Fujian province, with the first to be in operation in 2018 (see see section below on Sanming).
See also Fast neutron reactors section in page on China's Nuclear Fuel Cycle.
Embarking upon Generation III plants
In September 2004, the State Council approved plans for two units at Sanmen, followed by six units at Yangjiang (two to start with), these to be 1000 or 1500 MWe reactors pioneering Generation III nuclear technology from overseas. The Sanmen (in Zhejiang province) and Yangjiang (in Guangdong province) reactors were subject to an open bidding process for third-generation designs, with contracts to be awarded in mid-2006 – in the event, mid-2007 – putting them clearly into the 11th Five Year Plan.
Bidding process
This open bidding process underlined the extent to which China is making itself part of the world nuclear industry, and yet at first remaining somewhat ambivalent about that.
Three bids were received for the four Sanmen and Yangjiang reactors: from Westinghouse (AP1000 reactors), Areva (EPR) and Atomstroyexport (VVER-1000 model V-392). The State Nuclear Power Technology Corporation (SNPTC), directly under China's State Council, was in charge of technology selection for new plants being bid from overseas.
The USA, French and Russian governments were reported to be giving firm support as finance and support arrangements were put in place. The US Export-Import bank approved $5 billion in loan guarantees for the Westinghouse bid, and the French Coface company was expected similarly to finance Areva for its bid. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission gave approval for Westinghouse to export equipment and engineering services as well as the initial fuel load and one replacement for the four units. Bids for both two-unit plants were received in Beijing on behalf of the two customers: China Guangdong Nuclear Power Co (CGNPC) for Yangjiang, and China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) for Sanmen. Bids were for the nuclear portion of each plant only, the turbine tenders to be called for subsequently.
Bids were assessed on level of technology, the degree to which it was proven, price, local content, and technology transfer - which apparently became the major factor. Areva and Westinghouse were short-listed. However, the decision on reactor type was delayed, and came under review at the highest political level, with CNNC evidently pushing for the use of indigenous second-generation designs for both sites.
In December 2006, 22 months after the bids were submitted and after several revisions to them, the Westinghouse AP1000 reactor design was selected for the four units – two each at Sanmen and Yangjiang. Early in 2007, the two units planned for the Yangjiang site were switched to Haiyang in the more northerly Shandong province, making way for two EPR units Areva was in negotiations to build at Yangjiang. Later in 2007, plans for the EPRs under consideration for Yangjiang were transferred to another Guangdong site – Taishan – since there was pressure to build a lot of capacity quickly at Yangjiang.
Sanmen 1&2 and Haiyang 1&2
A framework agreement was signed at the end of February 2007 between Westinghouse and SNPTC specifying Haiyang and Sanmen for the four AP1000 units. In July 2007, Westinghouse, along with consortium partner Shaw, signed the contracts with SNPTC, Sanmen Nuclear Power Company (51% owned by CNNC), Shangdong Nuclear Power Company (61% owned by CPI) and China National Technical Import & Export Corporation (CNTIC) for four AP1000 reactors. Specific terms were not disclosed but the figure of $5.3 billion for the first two was widely quoted.
Sanmen site works commenced in February 2008 and full construction on Sanmen 1 – the world's first AP1000 unit – officially commenced on 19 April 2009. The reactor is expected to begin operation in August 2013 with the second about one year later. First concrete at Haiyang 1 was in September 2009. The Haiyang units are expected to commence operation in 2014 and 2015.
AP1000 construction and equipment contracts
Westinghouse and Shaw Group have an engineering, procurement, commissioning and start-up as well as project management contract with SNPTC for the first four reactors (Sanmen & Haiyang). Also Shaw has a contract with State Nuclear Power Engineering Corp. Ltd, a SNPTC subsidiary, for technical support for the first two Dafan, Xianning units in Hubei province, including engineering and design management, project controls, quality assurance, construction management and project management.
In April 2007, Westinghouse signed a $350 million contract with Doosan Heavy Industries in Korea for two pressure vessels and four steam generators for Sanmen 1 and Haiyang 1. The pressure vessels for the other two units are being made by Chinese manufacturers: China First Heavy Industries (CFHI, also known as YiZhong) for Sanmen 2 and Shanghai Electric Group Corporation (SEC) for Haiyang 2. Steam generators for Sanmen 2 and Haiyang 2 were to be manufactured by Harbin Power Equipment Co., Ltd. (HPEC) and SEC, respectively, though a contract for Sanmen 2 steam generators was let to Spain's ENSA in 2011.
All four steam turbine generators are being manufactured by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI). In a $521 million deal, Sanmen Nuclear Power ordered two turbine generator packages from MHI at the end of September 2007, with Shandong Nuclear Power ordering another two early in 2008. MHI's Takasago Machinery Works is manufacturing the turbines, including rotors and blades. Mitsubishi Electric Corporation is supplying the generators and HPEC, partnering with MHI, is responsible for turbine casings, piping and associated facilities. The turbines will reportedly boost the capacity of the reactors from their designed 1175 MWe to 1250 MWe gross.
In November 2010, further contracts were signed between SNPTC and Westinghouse, including one for Westinghouse to provide SNPTC with technical consulting services in research and development of the CAP1400 nuclear power plant, to be developed by SNPTC with Chinese intellectual property rights. Westinghouse said that having shared design technology with SNERDI, it expected 100% localization by 2015.
In January 2011, a further agreement was signed with SNPTC to deploy further AP1000 units, and to extend the 2008 technology cooperation agreement for another two years. SNPTC said the deal also included measures "to develop cooperation in the field of overseas markets." Another agreement was signed with China Baotou Nuclear Fuel Co "to design, manufacture and install fuel fabrication equipment that will enable China to manufacture fuel" for AP1000 units. The latter $35 million contract involves supply and installation of US equipment at Baotou.
Taishan 1&2
In February 2007, EDF entered a cooperation agreement with CGNPC to build and operate a two-unit EPR power station at Yangjiang in Guangdong province. This deal was not expected to involve the technology transfer which is central to the Westinghouse contracts, since the EPR has multiple redundant safety systems rather than passive safety systems and is seen to be more complex and expensive, hence of less long-term interest to China. However, negotiations with Areva and EDF dragged on and in August 2007 it was announced that the EPR project had been shuffled to Taishan (in Guangdong) so that six CPR-1000 units previously planned for that site could be built at Yangjiang as soon as possible.
At a November 2007 ceremony attended by Chinese president Hu Jintao and French president Nicolas Sarkozy in Beijing's Great Hall of the People, Areva initialed an €8 billion contract with CGNPC for the two EPRs at Taishan plus supply of fuel to 2026 and other materials and services for them. The whole project, including fuel supply, totals €8 billion, of which the nuclear reactors themselves were reported to be about €3.5 billion. Steam turbine generators costing €300 million are included in the larger sum. The Guangdong Development Commission quotes the total investment in both units as CNY 49.85 billion ($7.3 billion). The joint venture partners will put up CNY 16.45 billion and the balance will be borrowed with guarantee from the Central Bank of France. French export credits for the project are reported as €1.7 billion ($2.4 billion), covering purchase of equipment such as pressure vessel and steam generators for unit 1 from French suppliers.
In August 2008, EDF and CGNPC signed the final agreements for the creation of Guangdong Taishan Nuclear Power Joint Venture Company Limited (TNPC). EDF will hold 30% of TNPC for a period of 50 years (the maximum period permitted for a joint venture in China), CGNPC 70%. TNPC will oversee the building, then own and operate the plant. EDF is paying €600 to 800 million over four years for this share, subject to approval by the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) and the Ministry of Commerce. (EDF is project manager and architect for the Flamanville 3 EPR project in France, and this initiative consolidates its change in corporate strategy outside France as expressed already in the UniStar joint venture set up in mid-2007 with Constellation in USA to build, own and operate a fleet of US-EPRs in North America.)
CGNPC subsidiary China Nuclear Power Engineering Co. and Areva also set up an engineering joint venture Wecan, in December 2009. This is 55% CGNPC and 45% Areva, is based in Shenzen, and builds on Areva's European experience
CGNPC authorised construction in July 2008 and first concrete was poured on 28 October 2009, though the official inauguration ceremony was not until 21 December. Construction on the second unit started in April 2010. The first unit should be completed at the end of 2013 and the second in 2015. The major components for unit 1 are imported: the pressure vessel from Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) in Japan and the steam generators from Areva Chalon/St. Marcel in France, but those for unit 2 are all built in China: the pressure vessel by Dongfang Electric (DEC), the steam generators by DEC (two) and Shanghai Electric (two). The Arabelle steam turbines and 1750 MWe generators are being purchased separately from Alstom and Dongfang Electric Co.
Nuclear growth
In 2007, nuclear power plants provided 62.86 billion kWh – 2.3% of total – and there is now 8.6 GWe (net) installed. The first two nuclear power plants in mainland China were at Daya Bay near Hong Kong and Qinshan, south of Shanghai, with construction starting in the mid-1980s.
China's concerted nuclear expansion began with the National Development and Reform Commission's (NDRC's) Tenth Economic Plan for the years 2001-2005. (China's first economic plan was in 1953 and began China's centrally planned industrialization under Mao Zedong.) The Eleventh Economic Plan for the years 2006-2010 set even more ambitious goals than the Tenth for new nuclear plant construction, and marked a watershed in China's commitment to third-generation reactors, such as the Sanmen plant in Zhejiang province and Haiyang plant in Shandong province (see section above on Reactor technology).
The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2001-05) incorporated the construction of eight nuclear reactors, though the timeline for contracts was extended, putting the last two projects into the 11th plan. The four units in the Tenth Plan were: Ling Ao Phase II (also known as Ling Dong) in Guangdong province – the first CPR-1000 plant and based on the Daya Bay and Ling Ao Phase I nuclear plants; and Qinshan Phase II, in Zhejiang province – duplicating the indigenous CNP-600 units 1&2. The following slipped to the Eleventh Plan: Sanmen in Zhejiang province, using advanced foreign technology and design; and Yangjiang in Guangdong province, 500 km west of Hong Kong, originally intended to use advanced foreign technology.
The 11th Five Year Plan (2006-10) had firmer environmental goals than previously, including reduction of 20% in the amount of energy required per unit of GDP, i.e. 4% reduction per year. As well as the Sanmen and Yangjiang projects slipped from the Tenth Plan, nuclear power developments originally proposed in the Eleventh Plan included reactors at Hongyanhe (4), Haiyang (2), Fuqing (2) and Taishan (2), all of which are now under construction. Two at Lufeng and two at Hongshiding are delayed.
In 2007, it was announced that three state-owned corporations had been approved by NNSA to own and operate nuclear power plants: CNNC, CGNPC and China Power Investment Corporation (CPI). Any other public or private companies are to have minority shares in new projects, which is proving a severe constraint on the ambitions of the country's main power utilities (including Huaneng, Huadian, Datang and Guodian), all of which have set up nuclear subsidiaries or become involved in nuclear projects. CGNPC is increasingly preeminent in actual nuclear power plants.
The 12th Five-Year Plan (2011-15) includes construction start on phase II of Tianwan, Hongyanhe, Sanmen and Haiyang, as well as phase I of inland sites: Taohuajiang, Xianning, and Pengze (2 reactors each except Taohuajiang: 4). By the end of the 12th Five Year Plan some 25 GWe is planned to be operational, and 45 GWe by the end of the 13th Five Year Plan.
More than 16 provinces, regions and municipalities have announced intentions to build nuclear power plants in the 12th Five Year Plan 2011-15. These include Henan and Sichuan, as well as those listed in the Further nuclear power units proposed Table below – most of which have preliminary project approval by the central government but are not necessarily scheduled for construction. Provinces put together firm proposals with reactor vendors by 2008 and submitted them to the central government's National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) for approval during 2009. NRDC consideration is via the new National Energy Administration (NEA). A great many proposals were received, many of which will be deferred to the 13th Plan.
In its 2007 Annual Report, CPI said that at the end of the 12th Five Year Plan it expected to have 100 GWe of controllable installed capacity including three nuclear power bases: Liaoning, Shandong and inland.7
The complex ownership structure of Chinese nuclear plants is described in Appendix 1: Government Structure and Ownership, and China's considerable heavy engineering and manufacturing capacity is detailed in the information page on Heavy Manufacturing of Power Plants.
Operating nuclear plants
Operating nuclear reactors
| Units | Province | Net capacity (each) | Type | Operator | Commercial operation |
| Daya Bay 1&2 | Guangdong | 944 MWe | PWR | CGNPC | 1994 |
| Qinshan Phase I | Zhejiang | 279 MWe | PWR (CNP-300) | CNNC | April 1994 |
| Qinshan Phase II, 1-3 | Zhejiang | 610 MWe | PWR (CNP-600) | CNNC | 2002, 2004, 2010 |
| Qinshan Phase III, 1&2 | Zhejiang | 665 MWe | PHWR (Candu 6) | CNNC | 2002, 2003 |
| Ling Ao Phase I, 1&2 | Guangdong | 935 MWe | PWR | CGNPC | 2002, 2003 |
| Tianwan 1&2 | Jiangsu | 1000 MWe | PWR (VVER-1000) | CNNC | 2007, 2007 |
| Ling Ao Phase II, 1 | Guangdong | 1037 MWe | PWR (CPR-1000) | CGNPC | Sept 2010 |
| Total: 13 | | 10,234 MWe | |
Daya Bay, Ling Ao Phase I
The Daya Bay reactors in Guangdong province are standard 3-loop French PWR units supplied by Framatome, with GEC-Alstom turbines. Electricite de France (EDF) managed construction, starting August 1987, with the participation of Chinese engineers. Commercial operation of the two units was in February and May 1994. There were long outages in 1994-96 when Framatome had to replace major components. Reactor vessel heads were replaced in 2004. The plant produces about 13 billion kWh per year, with 70% transmitted to Hong Kong and 30% to Guangdong.
The Ling Ao Phase I reactors are virtually replicas of adjacent Daya Bay. Construction started in May 1997 and Ling Ao 1 started up in February 2002 entering commercial operation in May. Ling Ao 2 was connected to the grid about September 2002 and entered commercial operation in January 2003. The two Ling Ao reactors use French technology supplied by Framatome, but with 30% localisation. They are reported to have cost $1800 per kilowatt.
Daya Bay and Ling Ao together comprise the 'Daya Bay nuclear power base' under the common management of Daya Bay Nuclear Power Operations & Management Co (DNMC), part of China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC). Framatome is now Areva NP. For Ling Ao Phase II, see below.
Qinshan
Qinshan 1 in Zhejiang province 100 km southwest of Shanghai, is China's first indigenously-designed and constructed nuclear power plant (though with the pressure vessel supplied by Mitsubishi, Japan). Design of the 300 MWe PWR was by the Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research & Design Institute (SNERDI). Construction work spanned 6.5 years from March 1985, with first grid connection in December 1991. It was shut down for 14 months for major repairs from mid-1998.
In October 2007, Qinshan 1 was shut down for a major upgrade. The entire instrumentation and control system was replaced, along with the reactor pressure vessel head and control rod drives. Areva NP supervised the work, which is likely to lead to life extension beyond the original 30 years.
Qinshan Phase II units 1&2 are locally-designed and constructed 2-loop PWR reactors, scaled up from Qinshan 1, and designated CNP-600. Local content was 55%. Unit 1 started up at the end of 2001 and entered commercial operation in April 2002. Unit 2 started up in March 2004, with commercial operation in May 2004. Units 3 & 4 are similar, with local content of 77%. After 53 months construction, unit 3 was grid connected on 1 August 2010, and entered commercial operation 12 weeks later8.
In 2004, CNNC announced that the next two Qinshan units would be 1000 MWe indigenous units (i.e.CNP-1000 units, now seen as very unlikely or much delayed, and in effect Fangjiashan, adjacent to Qinshan 1, takes over this role).
Qinshan Phase III units 1&2 use the Candu 6 pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR) technology, with Atomic Energy of Canada (AECL) being the main contractor of the project on a turnkey basis. Construction began in 1997 and unit 1 started up in September 2002 and unit 2 in April 2003. They are each about 665 MWe net.
Tianwan
Tianwan Phase I at at Lianyungang city in Jiangsu province is a Russian AES-91 power plant (with two 1060 MWe VVER reactors) constructed under a cooperation agreement between China and Russia - the largest such project ever. The cost is reported to be $3.2 billion, with China contributing $1.8 billion of this. Completion was delayed due to corrosion in the steam generators which resulted in some tubes having to be plugged with a net loss of capacity of about 2%. The first unit was grid connected in May 2006 and put into commercial operation in June 2007. The second was grid connected in May 2007, with commercial operation in August 2007. Design life is 40 years.
Nuclear plants under construction and planned
China Guangdong Nuclear Power (CGNPC) expected to spend $ 9.5 billion on its Ling Ao Phase II, Yangjiang and Taishan nuclear power plants by 2010 and to have 6000 MWe on line by then, with 12,000 MWe under construction. Work is under way at all these sites and others. It also planned to start on the Lufeng plant in Guangdong and Wuhu in Anhui province, but awaited NDRC approval. It is expecting to have 34,000 MWe nuclear capacity on line by 2020, providing 20% of the province's power, and 16,000 MWe under construction then. From 2010 it expects to commission three units per year and, from 2015, four units per year. CGNPC is also, due to State Council policy, committed to developing significant wind capacity through CGN Wind Co. It projects a total of 500 MWe by 2020.
In 2006, China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) signed agreements in Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong and Hunan provinces and six cities in Hunan, Anhui and Guangdong provinces to develop nuclear projects. CNNC has pointed out that there is room for 30 GWe of further capacity by 2020 in coastal areas and maybe more inland such as Hunan "where conditions permit". In October 2007, CNNC's list of projects included Chuanshan (Jiangsu province), Jiyang (Anhui), Hebao Island (Guangdong), Shizu (Chongqing), Xudabao (Liaoning) and Qiaofushan (Hebei) amongst others.
CNNC said in December 2006 that it planned to build four 1000 MWe units at Heyuan, inland in northeast Guangdong, at a cost of US$ 6.4 billion, but no timing was mentioned.
In mid-2009, Huaneng Nuclear Power Development Co – a subsidiary of China Huaneng Group (CHNG) – said it had opened an office in the city of Yingtan in China's inland Jiangxi province for the development of a new nuclear power plant in the area. This is one of five sites for nuclear plants after Rongcheng which CHNG was reported in May to have selected: Cangnan in Zhejiang province, Huaining in Anhui, Xuyi in Jiangsu, and Xiapu in Fujian being the others.
In November 2007, the NDRC said that the government had budgeted CNY 450 billion ($65 billion) to build nuclear power capacity by 2020. It had selected 13 coastal sites to accommodate 59.46 GWe.
In December 2009, CGNPC is reported to have signed a CNY 5.3 billion ($776 million) nuclear island installation contract with China Nuclear Power Engineering Group Co (CNPEC), apparently covering Ningde 3&4 in Fujian, Yangjiang 3&4 in Guangdong, Fangchenggang 1&2 in Guangxi, and Taishan 1&2 in Guangdong. This is the largest contract of its kind in China.
Nuclear reactors under construction and planned
| Plant | Province | MWe gross | Reactor model | Project control | Construction start | Operation |
Ling Ao Phase II
unit 2 | Guangdong | 1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | 5/06 | 8/11 |
Qinshan Phase II
unit 4 | Zhejiang | 650 | CNP-600 | CNNC | 1/07 | 2012 |
Hongyanhe
units 1-4 | Liaoning | 4x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | 8/07, 4/08, 3/09, 8/09 | 10/12, 2013, 2014 |
Ningde
units 1-4 | Fujian | 4x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC, with Datang | 2/08, 11/08, 1/10, 9/10 | 12/12, 2013, 2014, 2015 |
Fuqing
units 1&2 | Fujian | 2x1080 | CPR-1000 | CNNC | 11/08, 6/09 | 10/13, 8/14 |
Yangjiang
units 1-4 | Guangdong | 4x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | 12/08, 8/09, 11/10, 15/3/11 | 8/13, 2014, 2015, 2016 |
Fangjiashan
units 1&2 | Zhejiang | 2x1080 | CPR-1000 | CNNC | 12/08, 7/09 | 12/13, 10/14 |
Sanmen
units 1&2 | Zhejiang | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CNNC | 3/09, 12/09 | 11/13, 9/14 |
Haiyang
units 1&2 | Shandong | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CPI | 9/09, 6/10 | 5/14, 3/15 |
Taishan
units 1&2 | Guangdong | 2x1770 | EPR | CGNPC | 10/09, 4/10 | 12/13, 11/14 |
Hongyanhe
units 5&6 | Liaoning | 2x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | 2011, 2011 | 2015 |
| Shandong Shidaowan | Shandong | 210 | HTR-PM | Huaneng | 3/11 | 2015 |
Fangchenggang
units 1&2 | Guangxi | 2x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | 7/10, 2011 | 2015, 2016 |
Fuqing
units 3&4 | Fujian | 4x1080 | CPR-1000 | CNNC | 7/10, 2011 | 7/15, 5/16 |
Fuqing
units 5&6 | Fujian | 2x1080 | CPR-1000
or CNP1000 | CNNC | ?, ? | - |
Changjiang
units 1&2 | Hainan | 2x650 | CNP-600 | CNNC & Huaneng | 4/10, 11/10 | 2014, 2015 |
Hongshiding (Rushan)
units 1&2 | Shandong | 2x1080 | CPR-1000 | CNEC/CNNC | Deferred from 2009? | 2015 |
Ningde
units 5&6 | Fujian | 2x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | | |
Xianning (Dafan)
units 1&2 | Hubei | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CGNPC | 2011 or 2015 | 2015? |
Taohuajiang
units 1-4 | Hunan | 4x1250 | AP1000 | CNNC | 2011 or 2015 | 4/2015-2018? |
Pengze
units 1&2 | Jiangxi | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CPI | 2011 or 2015 | 2015? |
Xudabao / Xudapu
units 1&2 | Liaoning | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CNNC with Datang | 9/11, ? | |
Sanmen
units 3&4 | Zhejiang | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CNNC | | |
Haiyang
units 3&4 | Shandong | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CPI | 2010? | |
Xiaomoshan
units 1&2 | Hunan | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CPI | 2011? | |
Longyou (Zhexi)
units 1&2 | Zhejiang | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CNNC | 2011? | |
Sanming
units 1&2 | Fujian | 2x880 | BN-800 | CNNC | 8/2011 | 2018, 19 |
Zhangzhou
units 1&2 | Fujian | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CNNC & Guodian | 2011 | |
| Yanjiashan/Wanan/Ji'an | Jiangxi | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CNNC | 2011? | |
Shaoguan
units 1-4 | Guangdong (inland) | 4x1250 | AP1000 | CGNPC | 2013 | |
Tianwan
units 3&4 | Jiangsu | 2x1060 | VVER-1000
(AES-91) | CNNC | 12/12, 8/13 | |
Tianwan
units 5&6 | Jiangsu | 2x1200 | VVER-1200 or CPR-1000 | CNNC | ?, ? | |
Wuhu
units 1&2 | Anhui | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CGNPC | 12/2011 | 8/2016 |
Lianyungang
units 1&2 | Jiangsu | 2x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | | |
Shanwei (Lufeng)
units 1&2 | Guangdong | 2x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | by 2015? | |
| | | 33x1080
32x1250
2x1060
2x1200
2x1770
2x880
3x650
1x210 | |
| Total: 77 | | 87,620 MWe | |
Where construction has started, the dates are marked in bold. Those here not under construction are marked as 'planned' in the WNA reactor table. At 31 December 2010, 27 under construction: 29,790 MWe; 50 planned: 57,830 MWe (gross).
Fangjiashan is sometimes shown as a development of Qinshan Phase I.
Further nuclear power units proposed
| Plant | Province | MWe gross | Expected model | Project control | Construction | Start up |
Lianyungang
units 3&4 | Jiangsu | 2x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | | |
Taishan
units 3&4 | Guangdong | 2x1770 | EPR | CGNPC | by 2015 | |
| Nanchong (Nanchun, Sanba) | Sichuan | 4x1080 | CPR-1000? | CGNPC | | |
Tianwan
units 7&8 | Jiangsu | 2x1200 | VVER-1200
(AES-2006) | CNNC | | |
Yangjiang
units 5&6 | Guangdong | 2x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | | 2017 |
Xianning (Dafan)
units 3&4 | Hubei | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CGNPC | | |
Shidaowan
units 1-4 | Shandong | 4x1250 | AP1000 | Huaneng | 2013? | |
Shidaowan
units 5&6 | Shandong | 2x1400 | CAP1400 | Huaneng | 2013? | |
| Shandong Shidaowan | Shandong | 18x210 | HTR-PM | Huaneng | | |
Changjiang
units 3 & 4 | Hainan | 2x650 | CNP-600 or
ACP-600 | CNNC & Huaneng | | |
Haiyang
units 5&6 | Shandong | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CPI | | |
Xiaomoshan
units 3-6 | Hunan | 4x1250 | AP1000 | CPI | | |
Xudabao / Xudapu
units 3-6 | Liaoning | 4x1250 | AP1000 | CNNC with Datang | | |
Shanwei (Lufeng)
units 3-6 | Guangdong | 4x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | | |
Fangchenggang
units 3-6 | Guangxi | 4x1080 | CPR-1000 | CGNPC | | |
| Yingtan | Jiangxi | 2? | | Huaneng | | |
Nanyang
units 1-6 | Henan | 6x1250? | AP1000 (if CPI) | CNNC or CPI | | |
Xinyang
units 1-4 | Henan | 4x1080 | CPR-1000? | CGNPC? | | |
| Changde (Chenzhou, Hengyang) | Hunan | 4x1000? | | CNNC & Guodian?, CGNPC | | |
| Subtotal: 74 units | | 68,000+ MWe | |
| | |
| Jiyang | Anhui | 4x? | | CNNC | | |
Sanmen
units 5&6 | Zhejiang | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CNNC | | |
| Cangnan | Zheijiang | 6x1000 | | CGNPC/Huaneng | | |
Zhexi /Longyou
units 3&4 | Zhejiang | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CNNC | | |
Haijia /Haifeng
units 1&2 | Guangdong | 2x1000? | | CGNPC | | |
Jinzhouwan
units 1&2 | Liaoning | 2x1000 | | | | |
Fuling
units 1-4 | Chongqing | 4x1250 | AP1000 | CPI | | |
Jingyu
units 1-4 | Jilin | 4x1250 | AP1000 | CPI & Guodian | 2013? | |
Wuhu
units 3-4 | Anhui | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CGNPC | | |
Pengze
units 3&4 | Jiangxi | 2x1100 | AP1000 | CPI | | |
Heyuan /Jieyang
units 1-4 | Guangdong | 4x1000 | | CNNC? | | |
Haiyang
units 7&8 | Shandong | 2x1250 | AP1000 | CPI | | |
Pingnan/Baisha
units 1-4 | Guangxi | 4x1250 | AP1000 | CPI | | |
Hengren
units 1-4 | Liaoning | 4x1250 | AP1000 | CPI | | |
| Lanzhou | Gansu | 2? | | CNNC | | |
| Xiangtan | Hunan | 4x1250 | AP1000 | Huadian | | |
| Donggang | Liaoning | 4x1000 | | Huadian | | |
| Shizu | Chongqing | | | CNNC | | |
| Qiaofushan | Hebai | | | CNNC | | |
| Songzi/Xianning 5&6 | Hubei | | AP1000 | CGNPC | | |
| Guangshui | Hubei | 4x1250 | AP1000 | CGNPC | | |
| Hebaodao | Guangdong | | | CNNC | | |
| Yibin | Sichuan | | | CNNC | | |
| Sanming 3&4 | Fujian | 2x880? | BN-800? | CNNC | 2015 | |
| Site to be decided | Heilongjiang | 4x1000 | | Huaneng | | |
| Subtotal: about 72 units | | 32x1250
20x1000
2x880
c.18x210
Approx. 80,000 MWe | |
| | |
| Total: about 140 | | 138,000+ MWe | |
All PWR except Shidaowan HTR-PM and Sanming BN-800. Some of these entries are based on sketchy information. For WNA reactor table, 80% of numbers and capacity from this table are listed as 'Proposed'
Ling Ao Phase II
While the bidding process for the delayed Generation III plants from overseas vendors was in train over more than two years (see section above on Embarking upon Generation III plants), the Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC) signed contracts with Chinese designers and manufacturers for two CPR-1000 reactors as Phase II of the Ling Ao power station (also known as Ling Dong). Construction started in December 2005 with the 1080 MWe (gross), 1037 MWe (net) units. Unit 1 is about 50% localized and unit 2 will be 70% localized, under the project management of China Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation (CNPEC), part of CGNPC. Low-speed Arabelle turbine-generator sets are being provided by Alstom. In June 2009, the first Chinese-made reactor pressure vessel for a 1000 MWe class reactor was delivered for unit 2, from Dongfang (Guangzhou) Heavy Machinery Co. Unit 1 started up in June 2010 with grid connection in mid-July, 54 months after construction start, and entered commercial operation in September. Unit 2 is expected to commence operation in 2011.
Qinshan Phase II-3&4
Construction of the second stage of Qinshan Phase II was formally inaugurated at the end of April 2006, though first concrete had been poured for unit 3 in March. That for unit 4 was poured in January 2007. Local content of the two 650 MWe CNP-600 reactors will be more than 70% and scheduled construction time is 60 months.
Hongyanhe
This is the first nuclear power station receiving central government approval to build four units at the same time, and the first in northeast China. Construction of the first unit of the Hongyanhe nuclear power plant in Dalian, Liaoning, started in August 2007. It is the first nuclear power project in the 11th Five-Year Plan, with owner and operator being Liaoning Hongyanhe Nuclear Power Co, a joint venture of CGNPC and CPI (45% each) with Dalian Construction Investment Group. The National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA) issued a construction licence for units 3 & 4 in March 2009, and first concrete for unit 3 was poured soon afterwards. The cost of all four 1080 MWe CPR-1000 units in the first construction phase is put at CNY 50 billion (US$ 6.6 billion). China Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation (CNPEC), part of CGNPC, is managing the project. Shanghai Electric won a $260 million contract for equipment and Alstom is to provide the four low-speed Arabelle turbine-generator sets for $184 million. Localisation is above 70%. Commercial operation is planned for 2012-14. The project incorporates a 10,080 m3/day desalination plant.
In May 2010, the NRDC approved preliminary work on the CNY 25 billion two-unit second phase of the plant (units 5&6), and work began in July. The National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA) and the Environment Ministry approved the project in September 2010, construction start is expected 2011. Localisation is to be above 80% and the first unit is expected on line in 2015.
Ningde
Construction of CGNPC's six-unit Ningde nuclear power plant commenced in 2008. This is on three islands in Fuding city in northeast of Fujian province, and the first construction phase comprises four CPR-1000 units. The project was approved by the National Development & Reform Commission (NDRC) in September 2006, and local content will be about 75% for units 1&2 and 85% for units 3&4. Construction of the first unit started in February 2008, and CGNPC expects commercial operation of it after 58 months, in December 2012, with the others following to 2015. First concrete for the second unit was in November 2008, for the third early in January 2010 and for the fourth at the end of September 2010. Total cost for four units was put at CNY 51 billion ($7.2 billion). Dongfang Electric has a contract to supply turbine generators for units 1-4, using Alstom Arabelle low-speed technology. No dates yet known for units 5 & 6.
Fuqing
Construction of the six-unit Fuqing nuclear power plant 170 km south of Ningde also commenced in 2008 at Qianxe, Fuqing city in Fujian, near Fuzhou. The Fujian Fuqing Nuclear Co Ltd was set up in May 2006 with 49% held by China Huadian Corp. CNNC is responsible for the project which is using CGNPC's CPR-1000 reactors since alternatives are not licensed. First concrete for unit 1 was poured in November 2008, for unit 2 in June 2009, and for unit 3 in December 2010. Commercial operation is expected over 2013 to 2016. Site works are under way for further units there, total expected cost for all six being CNY 100 billion ($14.6 billion).
Construction of the project is by China Nuclear Power Engineering Co. (CNPE) and the reactor pressure vessels will be supplied by China First Heavy Industries, as for Fangjiashan. In June 2008, Dongfang Electric Group announced a CNY 5 billion ($725 million) contract for Alstom Arabelle low-speed steam turbine generators for the Fuqing and Fangjiashan plants. Late in 2010, CNNC was proposing the CNP1000 for units 5 & 6, noting "pre-project under way".
Yangjiang
Yangjiang city in western Guangdong province had originally been earmarked for the country's first Generation III plants (see section above on Embarking upon Generation III plants). After plans changed in the light of pressing generation needs in the region, Yangjiang will be the second nuclear power base of the China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC). Development of all six units of the Yangjiang plant was approved in 2004, with CPR-1000 later confirmed as technology for it. Construction of the first of two units started in December 2008, for commercial operation in 2013. Construction on the first unit of the second pair started in November 2010, then the final two (as the second construction phase) are to follow, with the last being built by 2017. Total cost is put at CNY 70 billion ($10.1 billion).
Yangjiang 1-6 and a further 14 units, along with the six units at Daya Bay/Ling Ao, will be operated under regional Daya Bay (DNMC) management. In July 2010, Hong Kong-based power utility China Light and Power (CLP) agreed to take a 17% stake in Yangjiang – the equivalent of one reactor.
Fangjiashan
Construction of CNNC's Fangjiashan plant started at the end of December 2008. It is close to the Qinshan plant in Zhejiang province and essentially an extension of it, using two CPR-1000 reactors. Construction of the CNY 26 billion ($3.8 billion) project is by China Nuclear Power Engineering Co. (CNPE) and the reactor pressure vessels will be supplied by China First Heavy Industries, as for Fuqing. In June 2008, Dongfang Electric Group announced a CNY 5 billion ($725 million) contract for Alstom Arabelle low-speed steam turbine generators for the Fuqing and Fangjiashan plants.
Sanmen
At the end of 2006, the Westinghouse AP1000 reactor design was selected for Sanmen in Zhejiang province (and for Yangjiang in Guangdong province, with the latter site changed to Haiyang). Contracts with Westinghouse and Shaw for two units were signed in July 2007. Site works under CNNC commenced in February 2008 and an engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contract was signed in March 2009 between SNPTC + CNNC and China Nuclear Engineering & Construction Group (CNEC) for both units, which will be overseen by Westinghouse and Shaw. Other stakeholders are Zhejiang Provincial Energy Group Co Ltd, CPI Nuclear Power Co Ltd, and China Huadian Corp. Construction on Sanmen 1 – the world's first AP1000 unit – officially commenced on 19 April 2009. The reactor is expected to begin operation in August 2013 with unit 2 about one year later. Construction on unit 2 commenced in mid-December 2009. The pressure vessel and steam generators for unit 2 are being made in China. See section on Embarking upon Generation III plants above.
Haiyang
Shangdong Nuclear Power Company (a subsidiary of CPI) signed contracts with Westinghouse and Shaw for two AP1000 units in July 2007. Work on the site is well underway and first concrete was poured in September 2009 for unit 1 and June 2010 for unit 2. The 5000 cubic metre base mat of each was placed in a single pouring of less than 48 hours. The pressure vessel and steam generators for unit 2 are being made in China. These units are expected to commence operation in May 2014 and March 2015. See section on Embarking upon Generation III plants above.
The site will eventually have six or eight units, and in March 2009, the NDRC approved preliminary works for units 3 and 4 at the CPI site, to be AP1000 units. Construction was expected to start late in 2010.
Haiyang will be a CPI training base for AP1000 staff, along with a set-up at Yantai.
Taishan
The first two EPRs planned for Taishan in Guangdong province form part of an €8 billion contract signed by Areva and the Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC) in November 2007. The Taishan project (sometimes referred to as Yaogu) is owned by the Guangdong Taishan Nuclear Power Joint Venture Company Limited (TNPC), a joint venture between EDF (30%) and CGNPC. First concrete was poured in October 2009, and unit 1 should be commissioned early in 2014, with unit 2 in 2015. Areva is fabricating major components for both units and expects net capacity to be 1660 MWe each. See section on Embarking upon Generation III plants above.
Site works are reported to be proceeding for units 3 & 4, and construction is expected to start before 2015.
Shidaowan HTR-PM
A demonstration high-temperature gas-cooled reactor plant, with twin reactor modules driving a single 210 MWe steam turbine, was initially approved in November 2005, to be built at Shidaowan in Weihai city, Shandong province, by Huaneng Shidaowan Nuclear Power Company Ltd (HSNPC). It will be part of the Rongcheng Nuclear Power Industrial Park project. The HSNPC joint venture is led by the China Huaneng Group Co – the country's largest generating utility but hitherto without nuclear capacity, and still without NNSA authority to build nuclear plants. Huaneng Power International is investing CNY 5 billion in the project, which received environmental clearance in March 2008. Site work is largely complete, but no NNSA licence has been issued. Subject to this, Huaneng wants to commence construction as soon as possible, for commercial operation in 2015. The latest (unconfirmed) reports suggest that NDRC approval has been given for construction start at the end of March 2011. The EPC (engineering, procurement, construction) contract was let in October 2008, and involves Shanghai Electric Co and Harbin Power Equipment Co. A simulator contract signed in May 2010 was between HSNPC, Chinergy and CGNPC Simulator Co. After three years of negotiation, in March 2011 a contract was signed with SGL Group in Germany for supply of 500,000 machined graphite spheres for HTR-PM fuel by the end of 2013. In November 2010 Huaneng Group signed an agreement with US-based Duke Energy to train nuclear plant staff.
This will be the demonstration plant for a further 18 modules at the site, total 3,800 MWe. (See also Research and development section in page on China's Nuclear Fuel Cycle.)
Shidaowan (PWRs)
In November 2007, China Huaneng Group (CHNG) signed an agreement with CGNPC for the Huaneng Nuclear Power Development Company to build four CPR-1000 reactors at Shidaowan, Rongcheng city, in Shandong province in an $8 billion deal. A letter of intent regarding the first two was signed in 2008. However, this has now become another AP1000 project and National Development and Reform Commission approval is being sought.
In October 2009, the Shidaowan Nuclear Power Development Limited Company was set up with capital contribution 40% CHNG, 30% Huaneng International Power Development Corp. (HIPDC) and 30% Huaneng Power International (HPI) – both being CHNG subsidiaries. Thus none of the authorised nuclear utilities is now involved, though Huaneng is linked with SNPTC on the project through the State Nuclear Demonstration Company – a 55-45% joint venture company by SNPTC and CHNG in respect to building the first CAP1400 units (see Reactor technology section above), two being envisaged after the four AP1000s.
Fangchenggang
The Fangchenggang Nuclear Power Project is located at Hongsha village, in the Beibu Gulf Economic Zone near Bailong in the coastal city of Fangchenggang in the Guangxi Autonomous Region (45 km from the Vietnam border in south China). Following an agreement in July 2006, the first stage (two 1080 MWe CPR-1000 units out of six planned) of the plant was approved by NDRC in October 2008, and again in July 2010. First concrete was poured in July 2010, and about 87% of the first two units will be sourced in China.
In October 2009, a general construction contract was signed with CNPEC. Guangxi Fangchenggang Nuclear Power Co., Ltd., a joint venture between China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (61%) and Guangxi Investment Group (39%), is responsible for the construction and operation. The first unit is expected to begin commercial operation in 2015, the second in 2016. Total budget is CNY 70 billion ($10.26 billion), with CNY 26 billion ($3.87 billion) for stage 1. (There is also a Fangchenggang supercritical 2400 MWe coal-fired power station operated by CLP Guangxi Fangchenggang Power Company Limited, a 70:30 equity-basis joint venture between China Light & Power and Guangxi Water & Power Engineering (Group) Co., Ltd.)
Tianwan Phases II & III
In October 2006, a preliminary agreement for two further 1060 MWe AES-91 reactors as the second construction phase at Tianwan in Lianyungang city of Jiangsu province was signed with Russia's Atomstroyexport. Construction of units 3 & 4 was to start when both the first two units were commissioned, and hence in November 2007 a further agreement was signed by CNNC. Preliminary approval from NDRC was received in August 2009, and the project is expected to cost $3.8 billion. Protracted discussion on pricing for the Russian components of the plant delayed the project. Eventually, a contract for the engineering design of Tianwan 3 & 4 was signed in September 2010 between Jiangsu Nuclear Power Corporation and Atomstroyexport, and the general construction contract was signed in November 2010. Final approval from NDRC was received in January 2011, and first concrete was scheduled for December 2012 and August 2013.
€1.3 billion was agreed for Atomstroyexport to provide 30% of the plant including nuclear island equipment (reactor, steam generator, pressurisers, primary piping. etc.) and some related equipment. It will not act as the principal contractor, though it insists on retaining intellectual property rights. Jiangsu Nuclear Power Corporation is responsible for about 70% of the project, namely, the civil work, turbine island with equipment and related infrastructure on the site. The turbine generator sets will probably be sourced from Dongfang Electric, using Alstom Arabelle low-speed technology.
Meanwhile, Iskorskiye Zavody, part of OMZ, has started making the major components covered by the Russian €1.3 billion part of the plant. It will manufacture two VVER-1000 reactor pressure vessels with internals and upper units. Delivery should be completed in 2014. The company already took part in making the major equipment for Tianwan 1 & 2, including reactor pressure vessels.
In August 2009, the Assets Supervision & Administration Commission announced that Phase 3 of Tianwan (units 5 & 6) would start construction in October 2010 – now delayed. These are likely to be AES-2006 type, though some reports have them as CPR-1000. Dongfang Electric has a contract to supply turbine generators using Alstom Arabelle low-speed technology. CNNC reported an EPC contract between Jiangsu and CNPE in February 2011, making CNPE the project manager.
Hongshiding (Rushan)
In November 2006, an agreement was signed by CNNC to proceed with the first two units of the Hongshiding nuclear plant at Hongshiding in Weihai or Rushan city, Shandong province, costing $ 3.2 billion, with construction to begin in 2009 and first power in 2015. However, it appears to have been deferred. Six units totaling 6000-8000 MWe are envisaged at the site, with Shandong Hongshiding Nuclear Power Co. Ltd as developer.
Changjiang
CNNC's Changjiang nuclear power plant on Hainan Island started construction in April 2010 for operation of the first unit at the end of 2014 and the second in 2015. It will eventually comprise four 650 MWe PWR units (CNP-600) based on those at Qinshan Phase II. Total cost of the first pair is put at about CNY 20 billion ($2.8 billion). Units 3 & 4 will be built as the second phase of construction. Huaneng Power International (HPI), part of China Huaneng Group (CHNG), holds a 30% share in Hainan Nuclear Power Co Ltd. More than 70% of the plant's equipment is to be made in China.
Sanming
In October 2009, an agreement was signed by CIAE and CNEIC (a CNNC subsidiary responsible for technology imports) with Russia's Atomstroyexport to start pre-project and design works for a commercial nuclear power plant with two BN-800 fast neutron reactors (referred to as Chinese Demonstration Fast Reactors) at Sanming city, an inland part of Fujian province. A site survey and preliminary feasibility study had been undertaken in 2007-08. CNNC in April 2010 established Sanming Nuclear Power Co Ltd as a joint venture company with the Fujian Investment & Development Corp and local government, and initiated a full feasibility study. Construction is due to start in 2013, the local content is targeted at 70%, and the first unit is to be in operation in 2018, and the second following about a year later. A second phase, with units 3 & 4, is due to commence in 2015. The plant will be similar to the OKBM Afrikantov design being built in Russia at Beloyarsk 4 and due to start up in 2012.
Xudabao/Xudabu
CNNC's Xudabao nuclear power station is in Xingcheng City, Huludao, in coastal Liaoning province. The CNY 90 billion (US$15 billion) Xudabao project will comprise six AP1000 reactors, with units 1&2 in the US$4 billion first phase. Site preparation was under way in November 2010, and final NDRC approval in January 2011 will allow construction start in September 2011. CNNC's Liaoning Nuclear Power Company Ltd owns the plant, with Datang International Power Generation Co holding 20% equity, and State Development and Investment Corporation (SDIC) 10%. The general contractor is China Nuclear Power Engineering Company Ltd (CNPE). In October 2010, the Northeast Electric Power Design Institute (NEPDI), Changchun, Jilin, a subsidiary of China Power Engineering Consulting Corporation (CPECC), signed a survey and engineering contract for the plant.
Lianyungang
CGNPC's Lianyungang nuclear power project is planned to have four units of 1000 MWe class to be constructed in phases. This is in Xinxu town, Lianyun district, Lianyungang city, Jiangsu province close to CNNC's Tianwan plant and involving the Jiangsu Nuclear Power Company. A proposal has been submitted to the NRDC and preparations for the project are proceeding, but prospects in the 12th Five Year Plan are uncertain.
Shanwei (Lufeng)
CGNPC's Lufeng Nuclear Power Corporation is making efforts to start on the first two units (of 6) of the Shanwei plant at Lufeng, Tianwei district in eastern Guangdong, but awaits NDRC approval. It will be a CNPEC project. It is in the 12th 5-year plan, so construction start by 2015 is likely.
Zhangzhou
China Guodian's first nuclear power venture, with CNNC holding 51%, will initially have two AP1000 reactors, on the coast in Fujian province.
Inland nuclear power plants
Xianning
In August 2008, CGNPC and Hubei Energy Group Ltd set up the Hubei Nuclear Power Company as a joint venture and announced plans to build a nuclear power plant in Xianning city of the inland Hubei province. Site works for this plant (four AP1000 units) at Dafan are under way. Construction of the first two units was expected to start in 2011, but may be delayed to 2015. The reactor pressure vessel for the first unit is contracted to China First Heavy Industries, and the first two 209 metre high cooling towers to Belgium's Hamon Thermal. The cost of four AP1000 reactors is put at CNY 60 billion ($8.8 billion). This will be CGNPC's first AP1000 plant. A further phase is estimated to cost CNY 45 billion.
The large pre-assembled modules that will make up the bulk of the new AP1000s are to come from a new inland facility owned by new firm Hubei Nuclear Power Equipment Company.
Reports of a Songzi plant may refer to later stages of Dafan, though possible projects in Yangxin county have been mentioned.
The Hubei Nuclear Power Co is also reported to be planning a four-unit AP1000 plant at Guangshui city in the northeast of the province.
Pengze
CPI's Jiangxi Pengze Nuclear Power Project in Jiangxi province is to have four AP1000 reactors costing CNY 60 billion ($8.8 billion). The site has been prepared for the first two units, and safety and environmental approvals were obtained in May 2009. CPI signed the EPC contract framework for phase 1 (units 1 & 2) in August 2009, the engineering project contract was reported to be between CPI Jiangxi Nuclear Power and CPIC. The equipment procurement was reported to be between CPIC and China Power Complete Equipment. CPI aimed to start construction in 2010, for 2013 start-up, but construction may be delayed to 2015. The project is inland in Juijiang city, on the Yangtze River. The cooling towers are being designed by Belgium's Hamon Thermal for the State Nuclear Electric Power Planning Design and Research Institute (SNPDRI).
Taohuajiang
CNNC's Taohuajiang nuclear power plant on the Zi River in Yiyang city, near Yueyang in inland Hunan province will be China's first inland nuclear power plant. It was expected to start construction in September 2010, and site works are under way, but construction may be delayed to 2015. (It is also referred to as the Taohua [peach blossom] River project.) CNNC set up Hunan Taohuajiang Nuclear Power Co Ltd. to build and operate the plant. Initially this was to be 4 x 1000 MWe at a total cost of CNY 34 billion, but it will now be a four-unit AP1000 project costing CNY 67 billion. The main contractor is China Nuclear Industry 23rd Construction Co Ltd; China Erzhong is contracted to supply the main pressure vessel forgings, and Dongfang Electric Corp will supply other major components. Germany's GEA Group is to construct the cooling tower for unit 1: a natural draft unit some 200 metres high and 160 m in diameter, with 15,000 square metres drenching area. Subsequent towers will have increasing local content.
It was approved by the NDRC in November 2005, and in 2008 the project was approved for preliminary construction. The design by SNERDI under SNPTC and SNPDRI was submitted to the NNSA in February 2010 for licensing. A general framework agreement for construction was signed by CNNC with CNPE Corporation as EPC contractor in December 2010. The first unit was originally expected in commercial operation in April 2015, and the fourth in 2018.
Xiaomoshan
The Xiaomoshan nuclear power plant on the Yangtze River in Huarong county, Yueyang city, Hunan province (inland), is a priority project for CPI. It will eventually have six AP1000 reactors and be built by Hunan Nuclear Power Company Ltd in two phases. NDRC approval was given in 2006 but as of mid-2010 NNSA approval was awaited. Site preparation is underway and first concrete was expected late in 2010. The cost is put at CNY 70 billion ($10.25 billion) for the first four units, funded by SNPTC and Wuling Electric Power Development Co. (a CPI subsidiary). The Heimifeng pumped storage plant will be associated with it.
Yanjiashan/Wanan/Ji'an
In August 2009, CNNC (51%) signed a joint venture agreement with Jiangxi Ganneng Co. Ltd and Jiangxi Ganyue Expressway Co Ltd (49% between them) setting up Jiangxi Nuclear Power Co to build the Wanan Yanjiashan nuclear power project at Ji'an in the Jiangxi province. CNNC contracted a feasibility study of Yanjiashan nuclear power program in July 2010. Pre-project work was reported as under way in November 2010. (This is also reported as a CPI project.)
Hengyang
Also in August 2009, CNNC signed an agreement with Hengyang city in Hunan province to build a nuclear power plant there or nearby. This is about 200km south of its Taohuajiang project at Yiyang city in Hunan. China Guodian Corporation, one of the country's largest power producers, is involved in the project though it has no nuclear capacity so far.
Zhongxiang
CNNC's Hubei Zhongxiang nuclear power project is at Zhongxiang city in central Hubei, with China Datang. The 5000 MWe plant is undergoing a detailed feasibility study, but further details are unknown.
Wuhu
The Wuhu nuclear plant on the Yangtze River in the Bamaoshan area, Fanchang county, of Anhui province was planned to have four 1000 MWe CPR-1000 units, but is now designated for AP1000s to be constructed in two phases. CGNPC's proposal for two units of phase 1 has been submitted, some preparatory work is under way and the Anhui Wuhu Nuclear Power Co has been set up, with 51% CGNPC ownership. The environmental impact statement was released for public comment in January 2010. The first unit is due on line in 2016.
Jiyang
Besides Wuhu, CNNC was reported as starting a feasibility study on another four-unit nuclear plant in the Anhui province, at Jiyang in Chizhou city, in December 2008.
Nanchun/Nanchong/Sanba, Yibin
In 2005, Sichuan proposed Nanchun/ Nanchong city east of Chengdu as a suitable site for a nuclear power plant and sought approval for it from the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), which was not given, possibly because of seismic concerns. In March 2009, the provincial government signed an agreement with CGNPC to pursue the plan for a Nanchun nuclear power plant, involving the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC), headquartered in Chendu. Preliminary plans in 2008 were for a 4000-6000 MWe Sanba nuclear power plant on the Jialing River, at a cost of CNY 25 billion ($3.7 billion). Majority ownership would be CGNPC.
Another Sichuan agreement for a nuclear power plant project has been signed between CNNC and Yibin city, south of Chengdu.
Shaoguan
CGNPC's Shaoguan nuclear plant will comprise four AP1000 reactors and is expected to cost RMB 50 billion. It will be located in Baitu Town of Qujiang District in Shaoguan City, and will be the first inland nuclear power project in Guangdong. The Shaoguan Nuclear Power Co was established in April 2010.
Xiangtan
In December 2009, China Huadian Corp signed an agreement with Xiangtan city government in Hunan to undertake studies for a CNY 60 billion power plant comprising four 1250 MWe reactors. A refined proposal was expected in September 2010. This will apparently be the fourth nuclear project for China Huadian.
Longyou/ Zhexi
In October 2008 a project proposal was submitted to NDRC by CNNC and Zhejiang Energy Group Co Ltd for a western Zhejiang nuclear power plant in Hangzhou with four AP1000 reactors, though earlier reports had four 1000 MWe units to be built in two phases from late 2010. The proposed site is Tuanshi, Longyou county. Pre-project work was reported as under way in November 2010.
Jingyu
CPI plans to spend CNY 85 billion to build the six-unit Jingyu nuclear power plant near Baishan, in Jilin province, with four AP1000 units to be in stage 1. The project is still in the preliminary feasibility stage, though site preperation is now underway.
Nanyang
To be a six-unit CNNC plant in Henan province. Pre-project work was reported as under way in November 2010.
Further Information
Notes
a. According to the China Electricity Council, electricity consumption in 2010 increased 14.6% to 4190 billion kWh, corresponding with a 10% growth in gross domestic product (GDP). Some 3090 billion kWh of this was in industry. China's energy consumption per unit of GDP met a target reduction of 20% from 2005 levels by the end of 2010, according to the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC). The energy intensity targets for the following five years are expected to be about 17%. [Back]
b. The CNP series of reactors is also referred to as the CP series. [Back]
c. The ACP600 design appears to be an advanced version of the CNP-600. CNNC expects to complete development of the ACP600 design by 2013. [Back]
References
1. Cost of Pollution in China: Economic Estimates of Physical Damages, The World Bank, State Environmental Protection Administration, P. R. China (February 2007) [Back]
2. Platts Power in Asia, 21 January 2010; China's electricity consumption jumps 14.56% in 2010, Xinhua News Agency (17 January 2011) [Back]
3. International Energy Outlook 2009, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, DOE/EIA-0484(2009), available at www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html [Back]
4. Maintain nuclear perspective, China told, World Nuclear News (11 January 2011) [Back]
5. APWR and HTR are listed into the national program, CNNC news release (24 February 2006) [Back]
6. Criticality for fast reactor World Nuclear News (22 July 2010) [Back]
7. 2007 Annual Report of China Power Investment Corporation (26 November 2008) [Back]
8. Unit 3 at Qinshan Phase II Nuclear Power Station begins operation People's Daily Online (22 October 2010) [Back]
General sources
China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group website (www.cgnpc.com.cn)
China National Nuclear Corporation website (www.cnnc.com.cn)
Country Analysis Briefs: China, Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/index.html
Uranium 2007: Resources, Production and Demand, OECD Nuclear Energy Agency and International Atomic Energy Agency, 2008 (ISBN: 9789264047662)
Nicobar Group website (www.nicobargroup.com)
Dynabond PowerTech website (www.dynabondpowertech.com)
Proceedings of the World Nuclear Association's China International Nuclear Symposium, held in Beijing on 23-25 November 2010.
http://world-nuclear.org/info/default.aspx?id=320&terms=Nuclear%20power%20in%20China
